RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Making a Preliminary Choice of Methodology 

Distinguish between three related concepts:

i) Research Perspectives
ii) Research Types
iii) Research Methods

Research Perspectives

Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives

A research perspective, as used here, is a general view and use of research approaches and methods. There are two major perspectives: quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative perspective derives from a positivist epistemology, which holds that there is an objective reality that can be expressed numerically. As a consequence the quantitative perspective emphasizes studies that are experimental in nature, emphasize measurement, and search for relationships. If a study uses language such as the following, it probably has used quantitative perspective i.e. variable, controls, validity, reliability, hypothesis, statically significant.

On the other hand, a qualitative perspective emphasizes a phenomenological view in which reality inheres in the perceptions of individuals. Studies deriving from this perspective focus on meaning, understanding, and take place in naturally occurring situations (McMillan, 1996). If a study uses language such as the following, it probably has used a qualitative perspective: naturalistic, field study, case study, context, situational, constructivism, meaning, multiple realities.

While some researchers seem chiefly concerned with the differences between the two approaches, Morgan (1997) explains how the two perspectives can be combined. He identifies four general ways of combining the two, based upon two factors: a) which one is primary and which secondary; b) which one is used first and which, second.

1. Quantitative primary, qualitative first. The researcher begins with a qualitative approach as the secondary method, using the qualitative data as a basis for collecting and interpreting the quantitative data (the primary method).
2. Quantitative primary, quantitative first. The researcher begins with a quantitative approach as the primary method, using qualitative follow-up to evaluate and interpret the quantitative results.
3. Qualitative primary, quantitative first. The researcher begins by collecting quantitative preliminary data as a basis for collecting and interpreting the primary qualitative data.
4. Qualitative primary, qualitative first. The researcher begins with the primary qualitative data, using quantitative follow up to interpret the qualitative data.

Research Types

The term research type is used here to identify the general research approach. While authorities in the field seem to differ as to how the types of research are classified, the following approaches, which are most often used in educational research, represent some of the options available to you as a researcher. To simplify the discussion, they are divided into whether they tend to use a quantitative or a qualitative perspective, although there is much overlapping in many of the types.

Studies Primarily Quantitative in Nature

The following types of research are primarily quantitative in nature.

Experimental Research

Experimental research uses methods originally applied in the physical and biological sciences. In most experiments the following procedures are used: a sample of subjects is selected; they are assigned randomly to experimental and control groups; a treatment is administrated to the experimental group only. The two groups are then evaluated on the basis of dependent variable and the consequence of the independent variable. The latter is the presumed cause of the dependent variable.

Quasi-Experimental Research
A quasi-experimental design is one that follows the general procedures of experimental research, without the use of control group or without random assignment, since random assignment or the use of control groups is often not feasible in educational settings.

Causal-Comparative Research

Causal comparative studies are designed to determine the possible causes of a phenomenon. Sometimes these studies are called ex post facto research.
Co relational Research
Correlation studies are designed to analyze the relationships between two or more variables, ordinarily through the use of correlation coefficients.

Descriptive Research

As the term implies, the purpose of descriptive research is to describe a phenomenon. Descriptive studies report frequencies, averages, and percentages. For example, you might study the attitudes.

Evaluation Research

Evaluation research makes judgments about the merit or wroth of educational programs, products, and organizations. It is typically undertaken in order to aid administrators in making professional decisions. Evaluation studies are usually described as either formative or summative. Formative studies are made while a new program or product is being developed; summative studies, when it has been completed. You might do an evaluation of a new standard-based curriculum performing both a formative and a summative assessment.

Studies Primarily Qualitative in Nature

The following types of research tend to take a qualitative perspective.

Case Study Research

A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple source of evidence are used.

Ethnographic research 

Ethnographic research
Ethnographic research is special types of case study research. It is distinguished from other types of case studies because it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study the culture of schools and classrooms.

 Action Research

Most action research documents deal with how an educational problem was identified, understood, and solved by practitioners.

Research Methods

Research methods, as the term is used here, are the specific techniques used to collect data with respect to the research problem. In general, five methods are typically used in educational research.

1. Test and measurements. Tests are administered and measurements made to determine the extent of change.
2. Interviews. Interviews are conducted with individuals or groups to ascertain their perceptions.
3. Observations. Observations are made to determine what is occurring and what individuals are doing.
4. Surveys. Surveys are administered to assess opinions, perceptions, and attitudes.
5. Documents. Documents are analyzed to establish the record.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Understanding the concept of documentation

How to make documents

 i) MLA Modern Language Association (name &page ref at each place where source is used, a parenthetical citation system
ii) APA American psychological association a parenthetical citation system source name and publication system and sometimes page reference
Your essay should be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5 X 11 inches) with margins of 1 inch on all sides. Your final essay should include, in the order indicated below, as many of the following sections as are applicable, each of which should begin on a separate page:
Title page: includes a running head for publication, title, and byline and affiliation.

General APA Guidelines 

Image Caption: Sample APA title page; running head and page number in upper right-hand corner, definition of running head IN ALL CAPS, and vertically and horizontally centers the title of the paper, its author and her affiliation to the page.

Page numbers and running head: 

In the upper right-hand corner of each page, include a 1-2 word version of your title. Follow with five spaces and then the page number.

Abstract: 

If your instructor requires an abstract, write a 75-100 word overview of your essay which should include your main idea and your major points. You also may want to mention any implications of your research. Place the abstract on its own page immediately after the title page. Center the word Abstract and then follow with the paragraph.

Headings: 

Although not absolutely necessary, headings can be helpful. For undergraduate papers, only one level of heading is necessary. Major headings should be centered. Capitalize every word in the heading except articles (a, the), short prepositions (in, by, for), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or).

Visuals: 

Visuals such as tables and figures include graphs, charts, drawings, and photographs. Try to keep the visuals as simple as possible and clearly label each visual with an Arabic numeral (ex: Table 1, Table 2, etc.) and include the title of the visual. The label and the title should appear on separate lines above the table, flush left. Below the table, provide the source. A sample Figure treatment is shown below.

Reference List: Basic Rules

Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.
All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.  Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth author's name to indicate the rest of the authors.  Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.  If you have more than one article by the same author, single-author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest.  When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.  Capitalize all major words in journal titles.  Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals.  Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.

List of References: 

Create your list of references on its own page after the last page of your text. Center the title References one inch from the top of the page. Give double space. Alphabetize the list of references by the last name of the authors. If the work has no author or editor, alphabetize the work by the first word of the title (excluding A, An, or The).

In-Text Citations: The Basics

Reference citations in text are covered on pages 207-214 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.

Note: APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using signal phrases to describe earlier research. E.g., Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998) has found...

APA Citation Basics

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, E.g., (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference.

In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and Italics/Underlining

Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.

If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose. (Note that in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.)

When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born Cyborgs.
Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's Vertigo."
Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.
 
Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

Short Quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers? If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation. She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.

Long Quotations

Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after closing punctuation mark.

Jones's (1998) study found the following:
Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)

Summary or Paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

In-Text Citations: Author/Authors

APA style has a series of important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without page numbers.

Citing an Author or Authors

A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and use "&" in the parentheses.

Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) showed...
(Wegener & Petty, 1994)

A Work by Three to Five Authors: 

List all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source.
(Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993)
In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
(Kernis et al., 1993)
In et al., et should not be followed by a period.
Six or More Authors:
Use the first author's name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
Harris et al. (2001) argued...
(Harris et al., 2001)

Unknown Author: 

If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined; titles of articles and chapters are in quotation marks. A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001).
Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for the author, treat it as the author's name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author.

Organization as an Author: 

If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source. According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations. First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000)
Second citation: (MADD, 2000)

Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses:

When your parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon.
(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)

Authors With the Same Last Name: 

To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names.
(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)

Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: 

If you have two sources by the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation.
Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...

Personal Communication: 

For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person communication, cite the communicator’s name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication. Do not include personal communication in the reference list.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).

Citing Indirect Sources

If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the secondary source in the parentheses.
Johnson argued that... (as cited in Smith, 2003, p.102).
Note: When citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above.

Electronic Sources

If possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by using the author-date style.
Kenneth (2000) explained...

Unknown Author and Unknown Date: 

If no author or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date").
Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).

Sources without Page Numbers

When an electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try to include information that will help readers find the passage being cited. When an electronic document has numbered paragraphs, use the symbol, or the abbreviation "Para." followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, 5) or (Hall, 2001, Para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that heading. Note that in some electronic sources, like Web pages, people can use the Find function in their browser to locate any passages you cite.
According to Smith (1997), (Mind over Matter section, para. 6).

Note: Never use the page numbers of Web pages you print out; different computers print Web pages with different pagination.

Reference List: Author/Authors

The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article, electronic resource, etc.)

Single Author

Last name first, followed by author initials.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.

Two Authors

List by their last names and initials. Use the "&" instead of "and."
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.

Three to Six Authors

List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by "&"
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.

More Than Six Authors

If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al.," which stands for "and others." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et al."
    Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3), 213-245.

Organization as Author

American Psychological Association. (2003).

Unknown Author

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
NOTE: When your essay includes parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the source's title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New Drug," 1993).

Two or More Works by the Same Author

Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first).
    Berndt, T.J. (1981).
    Berndt, T.J. (1999).
When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first.
    Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students' adjustment to school. Educational Psychologist, 34, 15-28.
    Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on adolescents' adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 1312-1329.
References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same.
    Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty, R. E. (2000). Flexible corrections of juror judgments: Implications for jury instructions. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 6, 629-654.
    Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994). Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of likelihood judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 25-43.

Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year

If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar claims..."
    Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416.
     Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial intentions and behavior. Child Development, 52, 636-643.

Reference List: Articles in Periodicals

Basic Form

APA style dicates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined.
    Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages.

Article in Journal Paginated by Volume

Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc.
    Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.

Article in Journal Paginated by Issue

Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized or underlined.
   Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13.

Article in a Magazine

   Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.

Article in a Newspaper

Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4.
    Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies. The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.

Letter to the Editor

    Moller, G. (2002, August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter to the editor]. Scientific American, 287(2), 12.
Review
    Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self-knower: A hero under control]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467.

Reference List: Books

Basic Format for Books

   Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
NOTE: For "Location," you should always list the city, but you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with one in another state.
    Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Edited Book, No Author

    Duncan, G.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Edited Book with an Author or Authors

    Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals (K.V. Kukil, Ed.). New York: Anchor.

A Translation

     Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities. (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1814).
NOTE: When you cite a republished work, like the one above, work in your text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).

Edition Other Than the First

    Helfer, M.E., Keme, R.S., & Drugman, R.D. (1997). The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Article or Chapter in an Edited Book

    Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.
NOTE: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers.
    O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.

Multivolume Work

Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York: Scribner's.
Reference List: Other Print Sources

An Entry in An Encyclopedia

     Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

Work Discussed in a Secondary Source

List the source, the work was discussed in:
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.
NOTE: Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation:
In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ...

Dissertation Abstract

     Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 7741A.

Government Document

     National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Report From a Private Organization
    American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.

Conference Proceedings

     Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995). Proceedings from CSCL '95: The First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reference List: Electronic Sources

Article From an Online Periodical

Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host makes available, including an issue number in parantheses.
    Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of online periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
     Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006 from http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving
Online Scholarly Journal Article
    Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number. Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8.Retrieved February 20, 2001, from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
If the article appears as a printed version as well, the URL is not required. Use "Electronic version" in brackets after the article's title.
    Whitmeyer, J.M. (2000). Power through appointment [Electronic version]. Social Science Research, 29, 535-555.

Article from a Database

When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication Manual.)
     Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database.

Non Periodical Web Document, Web Page, or Report

List as much of the following information as possible (you sometimes have to hunt around to find the information; don't be lazy. If there is a page like http://www.somesite.com/somepage.htm, and somepage.htm doesn't have the information you're looking for, move up the URL to http://www.somesite.com/):
     Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved month date, year, from http://Web address.
NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page, provide a URL that links to the home page or entry page for the document. Moreover, if there isn't a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date.

Chapter or Section of a Web document

     Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section number). Retrieved month day, year from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/.
     Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite: URL Rewriting Engine. In Apache HTTP Server Version 1.3 Documentation (Apache modules.) Retrieved March 10, 2006 from http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/mod_rewrite.html
NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site.

E-mail

E-mails are not included in the list of references, though you parenthetically cite them in your main text: (E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
Online Forum or Discussion Board Posting
Message posted to an online newsgroup, forum, or discussion group. Include the title of the message and the URL of the newsgroup or discussion board.
    Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the cyberworld of toylandia [Msg 25]. Message posted to http://groups.earthlink.com/forum/messages/00025.html
NOTE: If only the screen name is available for the author, then use the screen name; however, if the author provides a real name, use their real name instead. Be sure to provide the exact date of the posting. Follow the date with the subject line, the thread of the message (not in italics). Provide any identifiers in brackets after the title as in other types of references.

Computer Software

    Ludwig, T. (2002). Psych Inquiry [computer software]. New York: Worth.
For more help with citing electronic sources, see the APA style web site's coverage of electronic references or Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style from the APA web site, or visit our additional resources section.

Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources

Interviews, Email, and Other Personal Communication
No personal communication is included in your reference list; instead, parenthetically cite the communicator’s name, the fact that it was personal communication and the date of the communication in your main text only.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).

Motion Picture

Basic reference list format:

Producer, P. P. (Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor.
Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).

A Motion Picture or Video Tape with International or National Availability

    Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.

A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability

   Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing labs: A history [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907)

Television Broadcast or Series Episode

  Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast [Television broadcast or Television series]. City of origin: Studio or distributor.

Single Episode of a Television Series

Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of episode [Television series episode]. In P. Producer (Producer), Series title. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
  Wendy, S. W. (Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rising angel and the falling ape [Television series episode]. In D. Dude (Producer), Creatures and monsters. Los Angeles: Belarus Studios.

Television Broadcast

  Important, I. M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The nightly news hour [Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service.

A Television Series

   Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting action show [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company.

Music Recordings

Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from song writer]. On Title of album [Medium of recording]. Location: Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date).
    Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited.
For more about citing audiovisual media, see pages 266