Egyptian Pyramid

Egyptian pyramid

Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids—especially the Great Pyramids of Giza—are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history. Their massive scale reflects the unique role that the pharaoh, or king, played in ancient Egyptian society. Though pyramids were built from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period in the fourth century A.D., the peak of pyramid building began with the late third dynasty and continued until roughly the sixth (c. 2325 B.C.). More than 4,000 years later, the Egyptian pyramids still retain much of their majesty, providing a glimpse into the country's rich and glorious past.

he Pharaoh in Egyptian Society

During the third and fourth dynasties of the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed tremendous economic prosperity and stability. Kings held a unique position in Egyptian society. Somewhere in between human and divine, they were believed to have been chosen by the gods to serve as mediators between them and the people on earth. Because of this, it was in everyone's interest to keep the king's majesty intact even after his death, when he was believed to become Osiris, god of the dead. The new pharaoh, in turn, became Horus, the falcon-god who served as protector of the sun-god, Ra. 

Ancient Egyptians believed that when the king died, part of his spirit (known as "ka") remained with his body. To properly care for his spirit, the corpse was mummified, and everything the king would need in the afterlife was buried with him, including gold vessels, food, furniture and other offerings. The pyramids became the focus of a cult of the dead king that was supposed to continue well after his death. Their riches would provide not only for him, but also for the relatives, officials and priests who were buried near him.

The Early Pyramids

From the beginning of the Dynastic Era (2950 B.C.), royal tombs were carved into rock and covered with flat-roofed rectangular structures known as "mastabas," which were precursors to the pyramids. The oldest known pyramid in Egypt was built around 2630 B.C. at Saqqara, for the third dynasty's King Djoser. Known as the Step Pyramid, it began as a traditional mastaba but grew into something much more ambitious. As the story goes, the pyramid's architect was Imhotep, a priest and healer who some 1,400 years later would be deified as the patron saint of scribes and physicians. Over the course of Djoser's nearly 20-year reign, pyramid builders assembled six stepped layers of stone (as opposed to mud-brick, like most earlier tombs) that eventually reached a height of 204 feet (62 meters); it was the tallest building of its time. The Step Pyramid was surrounded by a complex of courtyards, temples and shrines, where Djoser would enjoy his afterlife.

After Djoser, the stepped pyramid became the norm for royal burials, although none of those planned by his dynastic successors were completed (probably due to their relatively short reigns). The earliest tomb constructed as a "true" (smooth-sided, not stepped) pyramid was the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, one of three burial structures built for the first king of the fourth dynasty, Sneferu (2613-2589 B.C.) It was named for the color of the limestone blocks used to construct the pyramid's core.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

No pyramids are more celebrated than the Great Pyramids of Giza, located on a plateau on the west bank of the Nile River, on the outskirts of modern-day Cairo. The oldest and largest of the three pyramids at Giza, known as the Great Pyramid, is the only surviving structure out of the famed seven wonders of the ancient world. It was built for Khufu (Cheops, in Greek), Sneferu's successor and the second of the eight kings of the fourth dynasty. Though Khufu reigned for 23 years (2589-2566 B.C.), relatively little is known of his reign beyond the grandeur of his pyramid. The sides of the pyramid's base average 755.75 feet (230 meters), and its original height was 481.4 feet (147 meters), making it the largest pyramid in the world. Three small pyramids built for Khufu's queens are lined up next to the Great Pyramid, and a tomb was found nearby containing the empty sarcophagus of his mother, Queen Hetepheres. Like other pyramids, Khufu's is surrounded by rows of mastabas, where relatives or officials of the king were buried to accompany and support him in the afterlife.

The middle pyramid at Giza was built for Khufu's son Khafre (2558-2532 B.C). A unique feature built inside Khafre's pyramid complex was the Great Sphinx, a guardian statue carved in limestone with the head of a man and the body of a lion. It was the largest statue in the ancient world, measuring 240 feet long and 66 feet high. In the 18th dynasty (c. 1500 B.C.) the Great Sphinx would come to be worshiped itself, as the image of a local form of the god Horus. The southernmost pyramid at Giza was built for Khafre's son Menkaure (2532-2503 B.C.). It is the shortest of the three pyramids (218 feet) and is a precursor of the smaller pyramids that would be constructed during the fifth and sixth dynasties.

Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone (averaging about 2.5 tons each) had to be cut, transported and assembled to build Khufu's Great Pyramid. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that it took 20 years to build and required the labor of 100,000 men, but later archaeological evidence suggests that the workforce might actually have been around 20,000. Though some popular versions of history held that the pyramids were built by slaves or foreigners forced into labor, skeletons excavated from the area show that the workers were probably native Egyptian agricultural laborers who worked on the pyramids during the time of year when the Nile River flooded much of the land nearby.

The End of the Pyramid Era

Pyramids continued to be built throughout the fifth and sixth dynasties, but the general quality and scale of their construction declined over this period, along with the power and wealth of the kings themselves. In the later Old Kingdom pyramids, beginning with that of King Unas (2375-2345 B.C), pyramid builders began to inscribe written accounts of events in the king's reign on the walls of the burial chamber and the rest of the pyramid's interior. Known as pyramid texts, these are the earliest significant religious compositions known from ancient Egypt.

The last of the great pyramid builders was Pepy II (2278-2184 B.C.), the second king of the sixth dynasty, who came to power as a young boy and ruled for 94 years. By the time of his rule, Old Kingdom prosperity was dwindling, and the pharaoh had lost some of his quasi-divine status as the power of non-royal administrative officials grew. Pepy II's pyramid, built at Saqqara and completed some 30 years into his reign, was much shorter (172 feet) than others of the Old Kingdom. With Pepy's death, the kingdom and strong central government virtually collapsed, and Egypt entered a turbulent phase known as the First Intermediate Period. Later kings, of the 12th dynasty, would return to pyramid building during the so-called Middle Kingdom phase, but it was never on the same scale as the Great Pyramids. 

The Pyramids Today

Tomb robbers and other vandals in both ancient and modern times removed most of the bodies and funeral goods from Egypt's pyramids and plundered their exteriors as well. Stripped of most of their smooth white limestone coverings, the Great Pyramids no longer reach their original heights; Khufu's, for example, measures only 451 feet high. Nonetheless, millions of people continue to visit the pyramids each year, drawn by their towering grandeur and the enduring allure of Egypt's rich and glorious past. 

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BLOOD

Blood:

The red liquid that circulates in the arteries and veins of vertebrate animals, carrying oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the tissues...

An internal bodily fluid, not necessarily red, that performs a similar function in invertebrates.

Blood Types:

Although all blood is made of the same basic elements, not all blood is alike. In fact, there are eight different common blood types, which are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens – substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body. Since some antigens can trigger a patient's immune system to attack the transfused blood, safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood typing and cross-matching.

The ABO Blood Group System

There are four major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of two antigens – A and B – on the surface of red blood cells:

    Group A – has only the A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma)

    Group B – has only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma)

    Group AB – has both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma)

    Group O – has neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma)

There are very specific ways in which blood types must be matched for a safe transfusion: 

In addition to the A and B antigens, there is a third antigen called the Rh factor, which can be either present (+) or absent ( – ). In general, Rh negative blood is given to Rh-negative patients, and Rhpositive blood or Rh negative blood may be given to Rh positive patients.

The universal red cell donor has Type O negative blood type.

The universal plasma donor has Type AB positive blood type.

Blood Testing

The American Red Cross performs laboratory tests for multiple infectious disease markers on every unit of donated blood. Tests are upgraded or replaced with more sensitive technologies as these become available. These tests include:

    Chagas disease (T. cruzi)

    Hepatitis B virus (HBV)

    Hepatitis C virus (HCV 3.0)

    Human Immunodeficiency viruses, Types 1 and 2 (HIV 1,2)

    Human T-Lymphotropic virus (HTLV-I/II)

    Syphilis (Treponema pallidum)

    West Nile virus (WNV)

What Happens to Donated Blood?

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BRAIN

The Human Brain

The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body.

It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses.

Here we will discuss about brain.

Brain Structures and their Functions of Human

BrainCerebrum

Cerebellum

Limbic System

Brain Stem

The nervous system is your body's decision and communication center. The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from your brain to your face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body. Sensory nerves gather information from the environment, send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.

The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to together as the brainstem.

The Cerebrum:

The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex: 

 What do each of these lobes do?

Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving

Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli

Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing

Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech

Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more efficient, because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons within it. We will discuss the relevance of the degree of cortical folding (or gyrencephalization) later. (Go here for more information about cortical folding)

A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres. The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions slightly different than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and the left hemispheres is associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons which connects these two hemispheres.

Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than your thumb. White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and other parts of the brain and body.

The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure of the cerebral cortex which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex is a recently evolved structure, and is associated with "higher" information processing by more fully evolved animals (such as humans, primates, dolphins, etc). For more information about the neocortex.

The Cerebellum: 

The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.

The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. What do I mean by this? In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolved prior to humans, for example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums. However, reptiles do not have neocortex. Go here for more discussion of the neocortex or go to the following web site for a more detailed look at evolution of brain structures and intelligence: "Ask the Experts": Evolution and Intelligence

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LANGUAGE PRACTICE AND NEGOTIATION SKILLS

LANGUAGE PRACTICE AND NEGOTIATION SKILLS

A model Presentation (continued from previous page)

‘Good afternoon, everybody. I’d like to thank you all for being here’.
‘My purpose today is to tell you about our corporate strategy for the next decade and more specifically to bring keep up to date with our plans for Quetta.’
To start with, I’d like to describe briefly our current marketing policy in the Punjab. Then I’ll illustrate some of the problems we’re having over market share. After that I’ll quickly outline the opportunities we see for further progress in the 21st century. Finally I’ll quickly sum up before concluding with some recommendations.
Please feel free to interrupt me if you have any questions at any time.
Now I’d like to draw your attention to chart B showing our sales revenue and pre-tax profits over the last ten years. You will notice that although turnover has risen, our profits have not increased at the same rate.
I’ve talked about our current position in the Punjab and I’ve pointed out some of the problems we are facing. Well, what options are open to us now? Where do we go form here?
‘As I have already indicated I think our first priority must be to build on the excellent results we have achieved in certain markets in Sindh . I’m referring of course, to Karachi and Haidrabad Spain. Let me quickly expand on those successes before we move on.
‘We should not forget the Peshawar market. Admittedly our results there have been poor so far, but there are signs the market is changing and we can learn a lot from our mistakes On balance, though, I think we stand to gain most from concentrating on southern areas and I strongly recommend we put all our efforts into further expansion in these areas.
In conclusion, may I thank you all for being such an attentive and responsive audience. Thank you also for your pertinent questions. Are there any final questions.

Language Practice

Signaling
Study these examples of ‘signaling devices’ from listening. Then write suitable headings for the groups of phrases that follow to summarize what each is signaling. As a guide to complete the exercise, a heading for group 1 has been given.
 Before doing so, I would like you to look at some interesting statistics. What do these world statistics to us?
Let me give you an example that I think really brings out graphically what I mean. Now for some trends in the market

I’ll start with memory models.
1. Introducing the topic
Let me start by…
I’ll start by….
First of all, I’ll…..
Starting with……….
I’d like to begin by…………

2. ………………
Right, I’ve told you about….
We’ve looked at ……….
That’s all I have to say about……….
So much for…….

3. …………….
Let me turn now to…..
Let’s move on to………
Turning to…………
I’d like now to…….
Next………..
Let’s look now at………

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COVER LETTER

What is a cover letter?

Definition:

A cover letter is a document sent with your resume to provide additional information on your skills and experience.

A cover letter typically provides detailed information on why you are qualified for the job you are applying for. Effective cover letters explain the reasons for your interest in the specific organization and identify your most relevant skills or experiences.

There are three general types of cover letters:

The application letter which responds to a known job opening (review samples)

The prospecting letter which inquires about possible positions (review samples)
The networking letter which requests information and assistance in your job search (review samples)
Your cover letter should be designed specifically for each purpose outlined above as well as for each position you seek. Do not design a form letter and send it to every potential employer (you know what you do with junk mail!).
Effective cover letters explain the reasons for your interest in the specific organization and identify your most relevant skills or experiences (remember, relevance is determined by the employer's self-interest). They should express a high level of interest and knowledge about the position.

All cover letters should:

Explain why you are sending a resume.

Don't send a resume without a cover letter. 

Don't make the reader guess what you are asking for; be specific: Do you want a summer internship opportunity, or a permanent position at graduation; are you inquiring about future employment possibilities?

Tell specifically how you learned about the position or the organization —

a flyer posted in your department, a web site, a family friend who works at the organization. It is appropriate to mention the name of someone who suggested that you write.

Convince the reader to look at your resume.

The cover letter will be seen first.

Therefore, it must be very well written and targeted to that employer.

Call attention to elements of your background —

 education, leadership, experience — that are relevant to a position you are seeking. Be as specific as possible, using examples.

Reflect your attitude-,

personality, motivation, enthusiasm, and communication skills.

Provide or refer to any information specifically requested

 in a job advertisement that might not be covered in your resume, such as availability date, or reference to an attached writing sample.

A SAMLE LETTER HERE

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MARKET REPORTS

MARKET REPORTS

The place where we go to buy or sell commodities is commonly known as market. Technically speaking, market is not a place or bazaar where we go to buy or sell, but it is indeed a contact of buyer and seller. The world has become a global village making buying and selling possible without going anywhere. Information Technology has mainly played its part in doing so.
Prof. Chapman says while defining the market that it refers not a place but to a commodity or commodities, buyers and sellers of the same who are in direct competition with one another. We can name these as Rice Market, Wheat Market, Yarn Market, Fruit Market, etc.

Definition

A market report describes the condition of a commodity in the market on a certain date for a specific period. It points out the business conditions in a market at a given time. Market Report may be of a day, a week, a month, a year or even a number of years. Daily Market Report shows the price of goods on a mentioned date. It also describes the closing rates of the previous day, the opening rates of that day, the highest and the lowest rates and the demand and supply of the commodities on that particular day.
Daily newspapers, television, radio and internet give this information. Consumers take more interest in daily market report than traders.
Weekly Market Report gives the condition of the commodities for the past six days. It contains closing rates of the last week, the opening rates of that week, the highest and lowest rates and the closing rates of that week. This report also determines the causes of variation in price and the expected price movement in the coming week. Business communities show a keen interest in such reports.
Monthly Market Report is an analysis of business done during the whole month. These reports are prepared for comparatively stable market and a permanent demand. This report describes the closing rate of the commodities in the previous month, the opening rate of the month, highest, lowest and closing rate of the month. Newspapers, trade journals and monthly bulletins publish these reports.

Value of Reading a Market Report 

The Market Report makes us aware of the volume and nature of business in the market. Traders become aware of different conditions of the market. They can know something about the demand and supply of a commodity.
Market Reports help people guess the future movements of price. The market condition is exposed to everybody as a result of which prices become stable. These prices can be compared at different markets.

Qualities of a Good Market Report

A person writing a Market Report should have a comprehensive knowledge of the matter that has to be reported. He must always keep in mind the following points.
1. Normally a Market Report is not personal. It should be written using third person and the past tense.
2. General readers should be able to understand the technical terms used in the report.
3. Words should be used economically. Unnecessary details must be avoided. It should not be so short that misses the essential information.
4. There should be a good analysis of changes of prices and demand and supply relationship.
5. Market Report should be based upon the facts. Events should be written in the minute details. Any writer of Market Report should be unbiased while concluding his report.

How to read a Market Report 

To comprehend a Market Report fully, it is necessary to read it carefully. Sometimes even an educated person faces difficulties to understand it. More practice is required to understand a market report. One should specially note the nature of report (daily, weekly, monthly or annual) the nature of commodity, volume of business and the trend of the market.

How to explain a Market Report

Sometimes a market report is reproduced and sometimes it is explained. While reproducing a Market Report technical terms should concentrate on the given matter. Do not try to add or omit something.
While explaining a Market Report, try to extract the hidden meaning. First of all explain all the technical terms separately, and then mention the price clearly.
 After following the above instructions explain the subject matter (of the report) clearly.

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PROPOSAL

The general purpose of any proposal is to persuade the readers o do something, whether it is to persuade a potential customer to purchase goods and/or services, or to persuade your employer to fund a project or to implement a program that you would like to launch.

THE MOST BASCI COMPOSITION:

The most basic composition of a proposal, as with any other written document, is simple; it needs a beginning (the Introduction), a middle (the Body of material to be presented) and an end (the Conclusion/Recommendation).

>The INTRODUCTION

 presents and summarizes the problem you intend to solve and your solution to that problem, including the benefits the reader/group will receive from the solution and the cost of that solution. 

>The BODY

 of the proposal should explain the complete details of the solution: how the job will be done, broken into separate tasks; what method will be used to do it, including the equipment, material, and personnel that would be required; when the work will begin; and, when the job will be completed. It should also present a detailed cost breakdown for the entire job.

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