Where does ethics come from?
Philosophers have several answers to this question:
• God and religion
• Human conscience and intuition
• a rational moral cost-benefit analysis of actions and their effects
• the example of good human beings
• a desire for the best for people in each unique situation
• political power
God-based ethics - supernaturalism
Supernaturalism makes ethics inseparable from religion. It teaches that the only source of moral rules is God.So, something is good because God says it is, and the way to lead a good life is to do what God wants.
Intuitionism
Intuitionists think that good and bad are real objective properties that can't be broken down into component parts. Something is good because it's good; its goodness doesn't need justifying or proving.Intuitionists think that goodness or badness can be detected by adults - they say that human beings have an intuitive moral sense that enables them to detect real moral truths.
They think that basic moral truths of what is good and bad are self-evident to a person who directs their mind towards moral issues.
Consequentialism
This is the ethical theory that most non-religious people think they use every day. It bases morality on the consequences of human actions and not on the actions themselves.Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good consequences.
One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.
The most common forms of consequentialism are the various versions of utilitarianism, which favour actions that produce the greatest amount of happiness.
Despite its obvious common-sense appeal, consequentialism turns out to be a complicated theory, and doesn't provide a complete solution to all ethical problems.
Two problems with consequentialism are:
• it can lead to the conclusion that some quite dreadful acts are good
• predicting and evaluating the consequences of actions is often very difficult
Non-consequentialism or deontological ethics
Non-consequentialism is concerned with the actions themselves and not with the consequences. It's the theory that people are using when they refer to "the principle of the thing".It teaches that some acts are right or wrong in themselves, whatever the consequences, and people should act accordingly.
Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics looks at virtue or moral character, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of actions - indeed some philosophers of this school deny that there can be such things as universal ethical rules.Virtue ethics is particularly concerned with the way individuals live their lives, and less concerned in assessing particular actions.
It develops the idea of good actions by looking at the way virtuous people express their inner goodness in the things that they do.
To put it very simply, virtue ethics teaches that an action is right if and only if it is an action that a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances, and that a virtuous person is someone who has a particularly good character.
Situation ethics
Situation ethics rejects prescriptive rules and argues that individual ethical decisions should be made according to the unique situation.Rather than following rules the decision maker should follow a desire to seek the best for the people involved. There are no moral rules or rights - each case is unique and deserves a unique solution.
Ethics and ideology
Some philosophers teach that ethics is the codification of political ideology, and that the function of ethics is to state, enforce and preserve particular political beliefs.They usually go on to say that ethics is used by the dominant political elite as a tool to control everyone else.
More cynical writers suggest that power elites enforce an ethical code on other people that helps them control those people, but do not apply this code to their own behaviour.
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